Technology in Teaching & Learning

What is technology ?

“… the systematic application of scientific knowledge and other organized knowledge to practical task”
                                                                                                                                 (Galbraith, 1967)


Seels & Richey (1994):


“Instructional technology is the theory and practice of designing, development, utilization, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning”.

Media Pengajaran

Konsep Media dan Media Pengajaran




Bidang teknologi pengajaran tercetus daripada pergerakan audio visual yang kemudiannya dikenali sebagai media pengajaran. Oleh itu, bolehlah dikatakan media pengajaran menjadi pengasas kepada penubuhan bidang teknologi pengajaran.



Media atau medium bermakna saluran komunikasi. Istilah ini berasal daripada perkataan Latin yang bermaksud perantara. Media digunakan untuk membantu proses komunikasi (Heinich, 2002) Ia merujuk kepada apa sahaja yang membawa maklumat daripada penyampai kepada penerima. Contoh media termasuklah filem, televisyen, radio, rakaman audio, gambar foto, bahan bercetak, komputer dan pengajar.

Reka Bentuk Pengajaran

Pengenalan kepada Reka bentuk Pengajaran (RP)




• Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan Reka Bentuk Pengajaran?

• Kenapa bidang ini harus difahami oleh guru sebagai salah satu aspek perancangan dalam pengajaran?



Mengikut Smith & Ragan, 1999, p.2, Reka Bentuk Pengajaran ialah proses memindah dan menggunakan prinsip-prinsip pembelajaran dan pengajaran ke dalam satu bentuk perancangan untuk bahan serta aktiviti pengajaran.



“Designing instruction is the process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and activities.”



Dick dan Reiser (1989) mendefinasikan RP sebagai satu proses yang sistematik untuk mereka bentuk, membangun, melaksana dan menilai pengajaran.



Manakala Richey, (1986) menganggap RP sebagai satu bidang ilmu sains yang mencipta spesifikasi pengajaran dengan terperinci untuk pengembangan, penilaian dan penyenggaraan suatu keadaan yang boleh memudahkan pembelajaran sesuatu unit pelajaran

Konsep Teknologi

Perkataan teknologi berasal daripada bahasa Yunani, “techne” yang bermakna kemahiran menggunakan pengetahuan secara sistematik sehingga terbit satu amalan yang praktikal bagi melaksanakan sesuatu tugas.

Teknologi ialah kemahiran menggunakan pengetahuan (saintifik) secara sistematik sehingga terbit satu amalan yang prkatikal bagi melaksanakan sesuatu tugas. (Galbraith, 1967)

Teknologi bukan semata-mata alat dan mesin sahaja tetapi lebih berupa seni atau sains bagaimana menggunakan suatu alat untuk mencapai tujuan tertentu. (Evan & Nation , 2000) Kata Heinich, Molenda dan Rusell (1969) “Teknologi bukan semata-mata alat dan mesin sahaja. Ia merangkumi proses dan idea. Kekuatannya terletak terutamanya pada proses dan idea, manakala kejayaan untuk mencapai sesuatu maksud atau objektif terletak pada alat.

Ini bermakna, dalam merancang sesuatu pengajaran, perancangan awal yang melibatkan penggunaan idea sama ada dalam bentuk teori, pendekatan, kaedah dan sebagainya adalah merupakan proses yang terpenting. Alat pula merupakan “pemangkin” ke arah mencapai kejayaan.”

Pengajaran pula merupakan penyampaian maklumat dan pemindahan maklumat yang mendorong pembelajaran serta membina manusia yang lebih baik (Wan Zah Wan Ali, 2000) Ini bermakna pengajaran ialah proses bekerja bersama pelajar untuk membantu mereka berkebolehan dan berkemungkinan untuk belajar, memastikan perubahan kefahaman yang menggalakkan pelajar terlibat secara aktif dalam pelajaran (Ramsden, 1993 et al)

Teknologi pengajaran ialah satu proses yang kompleks dan bersepadu yang melibatkan manusia, prosedur, idea, peralatan dan organisasi untuk menganalisis masalah-masalah serta mereka bentuk, menilai dan menguruskan penyelesaian kepada masalah-masalah dalam keadaan di mana proses pembelajaran itu adalah bermatlamat dan terkawal. (AECT 1977)

Teknologi pengajaran melibatkan aplikasi media, sistem, pendekatan dan teknik-teknik ke arah pencapaian pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang berkesan. (BTP, 1991) Dengan kata lain, Teknologi pengajaran adalah satu bidang yang berusaha ke arah meningkatkan kualiti atau keberkesanan pengajaran dan pembelajaran.

Teknologi pendidikan pula ialah proses yang kompleks dalam menganalisis keperluan pendidikan secara sistematik, saintifik dan rasional bertujuan untuk mereka bentuk dan mengaplikasikannya secara sepadu idea, tenaga, sumber bahan, kaedah dan tatacara untuk mempertingkatkan keberkesanan proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Untuk memudahkan, istilah teknologi pengajaran akan digunakan seerti dengan teknologi pendidikan.

Sistem Pengurusan Pembelajaran

Konsep dan Ciri-Ciri

Sistem pengurusan Pengajaran (SPP) merupakan satu sistem yang boleh mengurus aktiviti dan bahan pengajaran yang diperlukan. Secara khususnya, SPP merupakan perisian yang menyediakan kemudahan infrastruktur untuk merancang, menghantar dan menguruskan program e-Pembelajaran. SPP digunakan untuk menyampai, menjejak dan mengurus latihan.

SPP yang paling mudah ialah SPP yang digunakan bagi mengurus rekod latihan. Manakala SPP yang lebih kompleks ialah perisian yang digunakan bagi menyampaikan kursus melalui internet dan menawarkan kemudahan kolaborasi secara atas talian.

Fogg's Behavior Model:Triggers

Triggers tell people to “do it now!”



The third element of the Fogg Behavior Model is Triggers. Without a Trigger, the target behavior will not happen. Sometimes a Trigger can be external, like an alarm sounding. Other times, the Trigger can come from our daily routine: Walking through the kitchen may trigger us to open the fridge.



The concept of Trigger has different names: cue, prompt, call to action, request, and so on.

Capotology

Captology:

The Study of Computers

As Persuasive Technology

By John W. Shaffer

Captology is a made-up word meaning: the study of Computers As Persuasive Technology (CAPT-ology). B.J. Fogg is a professor at Stanford University and runs the Persuasive Technology Lab there. He was instrumental in developing the field of Captology. He said, "Simply put, a persuasive computer is an interactive technology that changes a person's attitudes or behaviors." (Fogg, no date, 1) A critical aspect of Captology is persuasion. He defines persuasion as, "an attempt to shape, reinforce, or change behaviors, feelings, or thoughts about an issue, object, or action." (Fogg, no date, 1) Captology includes two varieties of persuasion: "macrosuasion" and "microsuasion". Macrosuasion refers to products that are used exclusively for persuasion. Microsuasion refers to products that include components meant to persuade. (Cheng, 2003)

According to Dr. Fogg, "One key point implicit in my definition is that true persuasion must be the result of an attempt to change attitudes or behaviors; in other words, persuasion requires intentionality." (Fogg, no date) From this we can deduce that all use of computers is not Captology. There are a number of methods to use a computer to instruct or inform that do not also include an attempt to persuade the intended audience. There are also times when persuasion occurs but without any intent on the part of the developer. "A computer qualifies as a persuasive technology only when those who create, distribute, or adopt the technology do so with an intent to affect human attitudes or behaviors." (Fogg, no date) In other words computers require human interaction with the intent to persuade to be considered persuasive technology. "Most software development is about functionality and usability, and only incidentally about modifying the user." (Grosso, 2003) Since the intent to persuade is a key component of captology, software programs, web sites, or other computer technology developed without such intent do not qualify as captology.

The ability to use computers as persuasive technology has increased sequentially with the huge surge in internet usage over the last decade. However, the internet is not the only way to use computers as persuasive technology. Computer technology can be used in many other ways to persuade people.

Dr. Fogg developed what he calls a functional triad for captology. It describes three different ways people use or respond to computer technology. "First, the computer as tool makes some behavior easier to do; an example is a pocket calculator. Second, the computer as medium provides an experience to the user; an example is a virtual environment. Third, the computer as social actor creates a relationships between the user and the computer; a digital pet is an example of this." (Cheng, 2003) We will look more closely at the three parts of this functional triad in several examples below.

One example of captology as a tool is companies using automated instant messaging to send users alerts. This is also referred to as nagware. Another example of captology as a tool is using computer technology inside products intended to persuade people a certain way. Baby Think It Over®, discussed more fully in the next paragraph, is an example of this. An example of captology as medium is a simulation program designed to encourage individuals to take a particular action. Examples of captology as a social actor are the various wizards embedded into programs that attempt to encourage users to perform tasks a certain way.



Computer as tool: Realityworks, Inc. has many programs designed to influence behavior. One is the Baby Think It Over® Program (BTIO) designed to educate young people about parenting responsibilities. A main feature of this program is a life-like doll that simulates many infant needs. Participants are required to care for the dolls just as they would an actual baby. According to the mother of a 13 year old BTIO participant, "Before she had BTIO, she wanted a baby and couldn't wait to get old enough to have her own….Well, she had BTIO for 5 days and by the 4th day she was writing in her diary how much she did not like the baby and that she was not going to have a baby until she was in her 30's if ever." That quote speaks strongly to the persuasive power of BTIO (Realityworks, 2004).